home: research: centers and laboratories: curriculum & instruction laboratory

Curriculum & Instruction Laboratory

Dr. Weiyun Chen

3170 Observatory Lodge
1402 Washington Heights
Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2013
Phone: (734) 647-3871

Future PE teachers try out some of Dr. Chen's pedagogical methods.

Research Overview

To promote students' achievement of desired learning outcomes, the research focuses on three different but related areas. One line of research aims at investigating how accomplished teachers use curriculum models such as movement education, interdisciplinary teaching, and tactical approach to help students demonstrate competency in motor skills and game performance and gain a cognitive understanding of movement concepts and principles. Another line of research examines how the national standards for physical education have impacted on in-service teachers' curriculums, teaching practices, and assessment and how to prepare preservice teachers for meeting the beginning teacher standards. The third line of research investigates the characteristics of expert and novice teachers' constructivist-oriented teaching practices and how expert teachers utilize constructivist teaching strategies to engage students' use of critical thinking skills in learning specific contents.

Current Projects

A Collaborative Approach to Developing an Interdisciplinary Unit

This study was part of a larger project aimed at investigating the implementation of interdisciplinary teaching linking measurement in mathematics with locomotor movements in physical education. The purpose of this study was to examine the collaborative approach used by a physical education teacher and second grade teacher to develop and implement an interdisciplinary unit. The literature suggests that effective collaboration among teachers is critical to making interdisciplinary learning meaningful for students and teachers (Cone et al, 1998; Stevens, 1994). Collaborative strategies have been defined (Cone et al., 1998), however the actual process of planning and implementation has not been documented. The participants for this study were an accomplished physical education teacher, an experienced second-grade classroom teacher, and 35 students from two second-grade classes. Two planning sessions were audio taped. Eight integrated lessons taught by the physical education teacher and three integrated lessons taught by the classroom teacher were video taped. Each teacher was interviewed about the planning and implementation of the unit. The audiotapes and videotapes were transcribed and sent to the teachers for individual member checking. All qualitative data were analyzed using the constant comparison technique to identify categories and themes that were then compared and contrasted among investigators to confirm the findings. The findings indicated that the physical education teacher initiated the collaboration and both teachers shared leadership roles throughout the planning process. They identified and agreed on the focus of the unit in which locomotor skills and concepts were integrated with units of measurement concepts and skills. Building on each other's ideas, they shaped and edited each lesson's focus, scope, sequence, and teaching strategies based on the students' knowledge and skills in both subjects. During the lesson, the physical education teacher and classroom teacher shared the teaching. The physical education teacher taught the integrated movement content and the classroom teacher helped the students make graphs and write in their journals. The teachers attributed their effective collaboration to their prior collaborative working experiences, good personal relationship, common teaching philosophy, enthusiasm about trying out new ideas, mutual respect and trust, and values about the role of other subject areas in enriching and enhancing students learning. The study identified characteristics that contribute to effective planning and implementation and supported the initiation of collaborative interdisciplinary units between physical education and classroom teachers. This study suggested that the interdisciplinary planning and teaching process resulted in a win-win outcome for both teachers.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Assessing Preservice Teachers' Achieving the NASPE Beginning Teacher Standards

The NASPE Beginning Teacher Standards (1995) provide a targeted direction for fostering qualified pre-service teachers. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate an instrument that assesses pre-service physical education teachers' perceived competency in achieving the NASPE beginning teacher standards. A careful study of the NASPE beginning teacher standards, a review of the literature on teacher effectiveness and competencies shaped and guided development of items on The Achieving the NASPE Standards Inventory (ANSI). A pilot study was conducted with 108 subjects who did not participated in the main study. The resultant pilot study yielded three factors that supported the theoretical constructs of the inventory. The items were revised numerous times based on four pedagogical experts' judgment, suggestions, and critiques. Finally, the ANSI consists of two parts: demographic information and 45 items rated on a five-point rating scale. 173 PETE pre-service teachers (76 male and 97 female) from 10 PETE programs at 10 state universities across the nation were voluntarily and anonymously completed the ANSI. Their teacher educators mailed the completed copies back to the investigator. Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients were used to analyze the internal consistency reliability of the ANSI. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using LISREL window version 8.54 to examine the construct validity of a three factor-solution extracted from exploratory factor analysis. The results showed the alpha reliability coefficient of 0.93, 0.82, 0.89, and 0.88 for the total scale and the three sub-scales, respectively, indicating high internal consistency of the inventory. Further, 11 items with a factor loading below 0.40 were eliminated from the ANSI based on the exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. To test how adequately the hypothesized three-factor model fitted the sample data, the confirmatory factor analysis was performed on the 34-observed items of the ANSI. The goodness-of-fit indices for the model were: NNFI= .91, CFI=0.92, IFI=0.93, exceeding the criteria of .90. The "fare" indices were RMR=0.05, IMSEA=0.05, meeting the criteria of 0.05. The results indicated that the model adequately fitted the sample data. The standardized maximum-likelihood factor loadings of 33 items were above 0.50 considering as an indicator of acceptable fit item, except for one item of 0.49. The results indicated that the items clearly defined the three constructs of the ANSI. This study suggests that the ANSI is a theoretically sound and psychometrically supported measure that can be used to assess pre-service teachers' perceived competency in achieving the standards.

Interdisciplinary Teaching: Integration of Physical Education Skills and Concepts with Mathematical Skills and Concepts Research Purposes

The purpose of this study was to investigate the teacher's implementation of interdisciplinary teaching that integrate physical education skills and concepts with mathematical skills and concepts in an integrated unit. Specific objectives for this study were to describe what interdisciplinary tasks looked like in physical education lessons and (b) identify how the teacher used instructional strategies to facilitate students' active engagement in interdisciplinary learning experiences.

Theoretical Perspectives

Constructivists view learners as active and constructive meaning makers. Learning occurs best when students make connections between their previous knowledge and current learning, when students are actively engaged in learning process, and when students collaborate with their peers and teachers (Dewey, 1988; Piaget, 1970; Vygotsky, 1978). Supporting the constructivist view of learning, brain researchers note that the brain uses previous experiences to organize new information and searches for meaning from those experiences. The brain perceives and processes information in an interconnected and holistic manner (Caine & Caine, 1991, Cromwell, 1989). In order to help students formulate deep understanding, it is crucial for teachers to provide students with meaningful and integrated learning experiences, to bridge gaps between concrete examples and abstracted concepts, to engage students in knowledge application and problem solving processes, and to create supportive and cooperative learning environment. Interdisciplinary teaching is viewed as one of the effective teaching approaches to meet the educational aims (Lancaster & Rikard, 2002; Lipson, Walencia, Wixson, & Peters, 1993). It integrates two or more subject areas into meaningful association in order to enhance and enrich students learning in each subject area (Cone, Werner, Cone, & Woods, 1998). Interdisciplinary teaching through physical education has received a great deal of attention by K-12 physical educators and teacher educators. Proponents view movement as an effective vehicle for providing integrative, concrete, and authentic contexts to extend and enhance students' learning of abstracted concepts in other subject areas (Christie, 2000; Cone et al., 1998). Through interdisciplinary teaching in physical education, the primary focus of learning movement concepts and motor skills would be enriched and complemented. A supplementary focus of helping students make meanings of abstract concepts in another subject area also would be augmented and reinforced. However, how teachers design integrated learning tasks and enact interdisciplinary teaching practices in a physical education setting to support this theoretical hypothesis still remains an untapped research area.

Research Methods

Participants and Research Setting

The second author, Theresa Purcell Cone, an accomplished elementary physical education teacher, and 35 students from two second-grade classes were selected as participants following receipt of parental permission. Dr. Cone has taught elementary physical education for more than 30 years and has expertise in interdisciplinary teaching. She is the lead author for Interdisciplinary Teaching Through Physical Education (Cone et al., 1998). She has published several articles on interdisciplinary teaching and has made numerous presentations related to using the interdisciplinary teaching approach at national, regional and state conventions. The rationale for choosing the second grade children included: (a) these students primarily function in Piaget's concrete operational stage, (b) the primary focus of the physical education curriculum for second grade is fundamental movement, and (c) second grade children are learning basic mathematical concepts and problems. The Brunswick Acres Elementary School in New Jersey was selected as the research setting because the student population represents a diversity of cultural, ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds.

Integrated Unit

A four-lesson integrated unit was designed and taught to two, second grade classes. The major mathematical concepts that were integrated with locomotor movement and movement concepts were:

Directly compare and order objects according to measurable attributes: Length: inch, foot, yard, centimeter, meter

Select and use appropriate standard and non-standard measurement tools to solve real-life problems.

Estimate measures.

Apply relevant mathematical concepts to enrich learning experiences such as add all three measures, subtract one measure from the other measures.

Communicating results including collecting, illustrating, and interpreting measured data.

Data collection

The data were collected by video-taping and audio-taping the integrated lessons, coding the taped lessons, interviewing the teachers and students, and students' writing journal entries.

Video-taping and audio-taping the integrated lessons. Eight integrated lessons taught by the teacher to two second-grade classes were videotaped and audiotaped, respectively. The teacher was in video camera range at all times, as were most of the children. All videotaping and audiotaping began when the teacher started a lesson and continued until the teacher dismissed the class. The audiotaped lessons were transcribed for analysis.

Coding the taped lessons. Prior to coding the taped lessons, the first author watched the taped lessons while writing down the tentative assertions. Subsequently, the first author coded the taped lessons using the following protocols: (a) watching each of the taped lessons while reading a corresponding lesson transcript, (b) pressing the " Pause Key" to stop the TV and then highlighting the information reflecting the teacher's lesson introduction, interdisciplinary tasks, task presentation, task facilitation and guidance, (c) labeling the highlighted instances with a tentative assertion next to the corresponding margin of the lesson transcript, and (d) writing the summary of the lesson on the blank sheet. The third author used the same procedures to code the taped lessons independently.

Interviewing the teacher. The physical education teacher was interviewed using the semi-structured interview questions for about two hours at the end of the integrated unit to find out her rationales for designing the interdisciplinary tasks, reflections on her own interdisciplinary teaching, opinions about the students' engagement in integrated learning experiences. The interview was transcribed for later analysis.

Interviewing the students. Five students were randomly selected and interviewed using semi-structured interview questions at the end of each lesson. The interview questions focused on what they learned most from the lesson, what they liked, what they did not like from the lesson, and how they engaged in learning processes. The interviews weretranscribed for later analysis.

Students writing journal entries. The students wrote a journal entry for each integrated lesson to record their feelings, thoughts, and understanding about the interdisciplinary learning experiences. For each journal entry, students were presented with journal prompts (questions) to elicit their written responses.

Data analysis

The coded lesson transcripts and interview transcripts as well as students' journal entries were analyzed by using constant comparison technique (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). The investigators independently read and re-read the transcripts, identify similar information and label them with tentative assertions, group similar ideas into categories and identify negative cases, and summarize categories and negative cases to organize them into themes. The categories and themes emerged from independent analysis were compared and contrasted. The categories and themes were further discussed to reach agreement among the investigators. The qualitative data were further analyzed using ATLAS.IT qualitative data software

Findings

Designing Sequential, Integrative, and Authentic Learning Tasks.

The teacher designed inherent scope and progressive sequence for the interdisciplinary unit. First, she organized the integrated learning tasks in a sequential order within each lesson. In the beginning of each lesson, she used initial learning tasks to lay background knowledge for the students to pursue next actual measurement of locomotor movement. For example, the students were initially engaged in exploring different locomotor movements and movement patterns with different ranges, in different directions, and at different speeds while counting the number of steps and given steps they traveled and estimating the number of steps they would travel across the given distance individually and independently. During this phase of the lesson, she used locomotor movements and counting skills as the building block for the subsequent learning tasks. In the second part of the lesson, the students were working with their partner to actually measure how far their partner traveled, to estimate how many steps they would used to travel across a space, to count and calculate the number of repeated movement patterns they traveled across a given space, and to record the data on working sheet while using counting, addition, and subtraction skills. She progressively embraced relevant math concepts and skills into movement tasks to gradually challenge students' physical and cognitive involvement. For each learning task, locomotor movements and key relevant mathematical concepts were coherently blended and immersed together. The teacher also organized the four lessons into a progressive sequence within a unit. The first lesson used addition skills to measure the distance traveled by using three locomotor movements. The second lesson focused on using addition skills to measure how far traveled by using movement sequence. The third lesson used the locomotor movements as the measuring tools to estimate how many steps used to travel across the space and then to actually count the number of steps used for the travel. The last lesson used movement patterns as a tool to estimate the number of repeated movement patterns would be used and were actually used travel through the distance. The difficult levels of the integrated learning tasks were progressively increased in the context of practical application of relevant mathematical skills and use of locomotor movements as meaning tools for traveling across the space.

Encouraging Relevant, Constructive, and Collaborative Learning Experiences

To ensure the interdisciplinary learning experiences relevant to students, the teacher used students' prior knowledge and familiar language as a starting point for instruction. She started a lesson with having the students generate a shared manual of locomotor movement they learned previously. She then built the learning tasks on the students' generated ideas. When explaining a more complex learning tasks such as creating movement patterns, she put the students into real-life situations to explain what a pattern means and how to transfer the concept of pattern into movement pattern. Prior to teaching the integrated lessons, she asked a classroom teacher about what mathematical vocabulary the students knew, how to phrase questions to meet the students' cognitive levels. In her teaching, she intentionally used the language that the children were familiar with to present the integrated learning tasks such as "estimate how many repeats of the pattern would take you to get to the red line." In all lessons, the teacher encouraged the students to be responsible for their own learning. She asked the students to make decisions about what locomotor movements to be measured, how many steps used to travel, what movement patterns used to estimate and measure, and what measuring tools used for actual measure. She encouraged the students to control of their own practicing integrated learning tasks instead of her direct control of the students' task pursuit. For each lesson, the teacher provided the students with sufficient opportunities for students to work with their partners to accomplish the tasks jointly. They worked together to count their partner's movements and movement patterns, to mark their partner's starting and ending point of the traveled distance, and to measure their partner's actual traveling distance. When engaging in the collaborative tasks, the students are encouraged to listen to each other's ideas about how to do the tasks, to take turn providing constructive suggestions on the tasks, and to experiment with the ideas offered by others.

Providing Instructional Scaffolding and Specifying Goal-Oriented Criteria

The teacher consistently provided the students with instructional scaffolding that enable the students to do on their own what they initially could not do without support by the teacher and their peers. Prior to students' working with a partner to do actual measurement of movement, the teacher always provided structured guiding supports steps by steps. She asked the students to demonstrate how to do the task and how to help the partner to accomplish the task cooperatively. When students were experimenting with the collaborative tasks, the teacher shared task pursuit responsibilities with the students. Initially, she guided the students to try it out, to make judgment about the task quality, and to refine their tasks by asking questions, listening to students' thoughts on their plans and their reflections on the tasks, and providing on-going verbal cues, relevant clues, and critical feedback. Subsequently, she provided the students with a given time for engaging in the tasks on their own. Across the eight lessons, the teacher specified and scaffoled the goal-oriented criteria for each lesson. From very beginning, the students knew what they needed to accomplish by end of the class. The general goal-oriented criteria included: recording measurement data on a specified data sheet at the end of the class, making graph using the recording data, and interpreting their results in classroom. The criteria served as a target for the students to achieve.

Educational Significance

This study provided both researchers and practitioners with insights about how the physical education teacher designed sequential and meaningful integrated learning tasks to help students make meaning of abstracted math concepts in applied context and see meaning of locomotor movements as effective tools in real-life situations. This study described how the teacher used appropriate teaching strategies to expand students learning movement content and to deepen students' understanding of math concepts. The results suggested that interdisciplinary teaching should provided students with structured integrated learning tasks and supportive learning environment.

Implementation of the National Standards in Elementary and Secondary Physical Education Teaching

Purposes

This study examined to what extent the National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE, 1995) have shaped the teaching practices and curriculums in elementary and secondary levels. Specifically, more attention was paid to the extent to which teachers (a) taught to the standards, (b) integrated assessment with teaching practices, and (c) incorporated the standards into physical education programs.

Theoretical Framework

The National Standards for Physical Education (NASPE, 1995) provide teachers with guidelines for curriculum and instruction to ensure "what students should know and be able to do" (p. 2) in the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domains. According to students' developmental levels, each content standard is further defined within K-12 grade levels. Grade-specific sample benchmarks delineate performance indicators toward achieving the standards. Curriculum-embedded performance assessments are recommended to help teachers assess levels of students' achievement that meets the specified standard. The standards provide not only desired learning outcomes for students to achieve, but also targeted directions for teachers to work toward. To facilitate all students at different grade levels to reach the specified standards, teachers must provide students with quality physical education programs that are developmentally appropriate and instructionally appropriate. Even though students participated in physical activities and sports, we cannot guarantee that they will (a) automatically learn and master motor skills and game strategies; (b) apply movement concepts and principles as well as game rules in actual contexts; (c) demonstrate physically fit behaviors, (d) maintain and enhance fitness levels; (e) develop responsible personal and social behaviors; (f) accept and respect differences among peoples in skills, cultures, and values; and (g) appreciate learning experiences offered in physical education classes. The achievement of the standards depends on what is being taught and how it is taught. The standard-based reform calls for effective changes in incorporating the standards into physical education programs. To date, the national standards have been published for six years. However, little is known about to what degree our current teaching practices and curriculums address the standards. Thus, the pragmatic need to conduct this research project is apparent.

Methods

The participants of this study were 26 physical education teachers (9 in high schools, 2 in middle schools, and 14 in elementary schools located in suburban, urban, and rural areas). The teachers' teaching experience ranged in years from two to thirty-five. Their school populations varied widely from predominantly white, culturally and racially diverse, to predominantly African-American. Students were from families representing low, lower-middle, middle, and upper-middle classes. Physical education class met once a week in the teachers' schools.

The data were collected through non-participant field observation with field notes, formal and informal interviews, and document collection. The researchers observed 78 lessons while taking field notes which described physical settings, students' portraits, lesson introduction, task presentation, learning experiences, students' cognitive, behavioral, and movement responses, a teacher's instructional intervention/feedback, and lesson closure. All hand-written field notes were input into a computer and printed out. 26 formal interviews (1 to 2 hours) were conducted with the teachers using semi-structured interview questions (Patton, 1990). Informal interviews were the daily interactions between the researchers and the teachers. All formal interviews were audiotaped and transcribed later for analysis. In addition, some of the teachers' curriculum guides, unit and lesson plans, and assessment sheets were collected.

Prior to data analysis, all researchers studied the standards and were familiar with them. Field notes and interview transcripts were analyzed using the procedures suggested by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and Goetz and LeCompte, (1984). These included (a) reading and re-reading each field note and interview transcript, (b) identifying instances which reflected grade-specific performance indicators in the standards with labeling, (c) identifying negative cases of grade-specific performance indicators with labeling, (d) grouping similar instances corresponding to labeling into categories and sub-categories, and (e) combining categories into themes. The data analysis consisted of three phases. First, each researcher used the procedures described above to independently analyze nine field notes and three interview transcripts. Each researcher's partner (another researcher) read his/her field notes and transcripts as well as summaries of findings to confirm or disconfirm them. Second, the first and second researchers used the same procedures again to re-analyze all data independently and then discussed any disagreement until reaching complete agreement. Lastly, the first and second researchers summarized all findings.

Results

Teaching to the standards. Of the 78 lessons, teachers explicitly taught to standards 1, 2, 5, and 6 and students more often demonstrated them in 36 lessons at elementary levels and 22 lessons at secondary levels. In the kindergarten through second grade classes, the teachers provided students with developmentally appropriate learning experiences. They used scenarios and/or metaphors to present learning tasks and cues, provided congruent feedback, and asked a series of questions. They reviewed and reinforced class rules in the lessons. Correspondingly, students listened to instructions, responded to class signals promptly, and followed class rules strictly. Most students stayed on-task and demonstrated mature movement forms in most locomotor skills, some manipulative skills, and some non-manipulative skills. They identified movement concepts and critical elements. They did not say "no" to any person who initially chose them as their partners and they worked together cooperatively by accepting their partner's accidental mistakes.

In the 3rd through 6th grade lessons, the teachers had students design their own games and fitness activities and do peer-assessment. The teachers provided examples of how to involve everyone in game plays and how to make game rules fair before students designed their games. They offered suggestions on the use of game formations and strategies and asked questions to lead students to thinking about their successful and problematic use of skills and strategies in game situations. When the teachers emphasized critical elements of skills, most students demonstrated mature movement patterns in basic specialized skills within practice and game situations. Students were able to provide their peer with verbal feedback while doing peer- assessment. When the teachers provided feedback on students' game plays, the students applied basic offensive and defensive strategies. Most students were responsible for working on skills with their partners or group members in stations and game plays.

In the 9th through 12th grade lessons, the teachers guided students in learning and refining skills, organized small-sided games, regular games, and non-elimination tournaments, invited students to design their personal fitness programs, and briefly reviewed critical elements and rules for tournament and game plays. Students demonstrated proficiency in some specialized skills, were able to judge game points, and displayed game strategies such as cutting to and being away from the ball and basic zone and man to man defense. Also students functioned independently and communicated with their team members about changing game strategies. Students demonstrated acceptance of one another's skill levels, playing abilities, and different cultural and ethnic backgrounds in the classes of diverse population.

In contrast, negative cases of the standards 1, 2, 5, and 6 were reflected in 20 lessons. For example, elimination dodge ball and kickball games, sideline soccer in double class size (60 students), large-sized games, and elimination low-organized games were observed. Once students began playing the games, teachers never stopped the games, never gave any feedback, never emphasized teamwork and sportsmanship. Students were off-task and apathetic about the games.

Integrating assessment with instruction. 16 teachers integrated performance assessment with their instructions. To help students be aware of their levels of achievement of standards 1 and 2 in a given content, five teachers used checklists, rubrics, or written tests to do either peer-, teacher-, or self-assessment of students' mastery of skill techniques and knowledge of game rules and strategies. One teacher used a point system to have students self assess their efforts and attitudes toward the class as reflected in standard 5. In addition, in their interviews, all 16 teachers discussed that they used assessment tools such as rubrics, checklists, written tests, and student projects to assess students' skill acquisition and utilization, understanding of game rules, and strategies, and application of fitness principles within instructional units. Only one teacher discussed that she used rubrics to assess students' cooperative behaviors, which reflected standard 5. Other teachers (10) did not show any evidence of using assessment techniques suggested by the NASPE standards in the observed lessons and the interviews. They discussed that they graded students by using students' preparation (proper dress) and participation as a major judgment factor.

Incorporating the standards into physical education programs. Three levels were identified. In the first level, 11 teachers consciously incorporated the standards into their written curriculums and teaching practices either because of their school districts requirement or their personal involvement in writing state standards or district standards. Elementary teachers indicated that their programs helped students in primary grade levels learn movement concepts, acquire fundamental skills, follow class rules, share equipments and space, and respect others. They also articulated that their programs helped upper grade students learn specialized sports and cooperative activities, understand game rules and strategies, and further develop responsible behaviors, cooperative abilities, and problem-solving skills. Secondary teachers discussed that they provided students with a wide variety of sports and activities in their programs. They emphasized that learning and refining skills, application of game rules and strategies, and demonstration of cooperation and sportsmanship are objectives for students to achieve in their programs. In the second level, even though the way they organized their curriculums naturally reflected some standards, the teachers never mentioned that they had ever used the standards as a framework for designing their curriculums and guiding their teaching practices. In the third level, the teachers' curriculum organization confronted the standards. Developmentally inappropriate learning experiences were included in their curriculums. Also, their curriculums reflected a limited scope of subject areas and lack of articulated objectives matching the standards.

Educational Significance

This study is significant in providing insightful and diagnostic information about positive and negative cases of reflecting and implementing the national standards in physical education programs. This study uncovers the stimulators and barriers of incorporating the standards into teaching practices and curriculum. The study suggests that both teacher education and professional development programs need to equip preservice and inservice teachers with adequate knowledge of content, pedagogy, assessment, and the standards.

Impact of External and Internal Factors on Implementation of the National Standards in Teaching

This study examined the extent to which external and internal factors influence teachers implementing the National Standards in teaching. Data sources consisted of: (a) observing 26 teachers teaching 78 lessons while taking field notes; (b) conducting 26 formal interviews with the teachers using semi-structured interview questions; and (c) collecting curriculum guides, unit and lesson plans, and assessment sheets if available. All formal interviews were audiotaped and transcribed and all field notes were typed into a computer and printed out for analysis. Constant comparison technique suggested by Glaser and Strauss was used to analyze the data. Trustworthiness was established by triangulating different data sources. Three themes emerged from data analysis.

The first theme showed a relationship between knowledge and implementation of the standards. Findings indicated that teachers who were knowledgeable of the standards intentionally used the standards for revamping curriculums, taught to certain standards based on grade levels and content areas, and employed assessment procedures as an integral part of their teaching. Teachers who were only aware of the standards varied in their implementation of these standards. The greatest difference within this group was the conscious effort of integrating the standards into their curriculum. While most demonstrated good practices, only about half were able to consciously relate their teaching practices to the standards. However, few in this group used assessments in their instructional processes. Teachers who were unaware of the standards either unknowingly demonstrated adherence to the standards or actually taught in direct conflict to the standards.

The second theme showed a relationship between content knowledge and implementation of the standards. The teachers with a strong knowledge base of developmentally appropriate learning experiences and assessment techniques consistently used the standards in their teaching practices and curriculums. Conversely, the teachers who lacked such a knowledge base failed to teach to the standards. The last theme showed a relationship between administrative support and implementation of the standards. Teachers whose school districts held them accountable for using the standards in their lesson plans and curriculums consciously addressed the standards in their teaching. Teachers whose school districts required them to discuss the standards during in-service programs but did not extend the use of the standards beyond these programs demonstrated little implementation of the standards in teaching. The teachers whose school districts were unwilling to make any changes did not incorporate the standards into their teaching and curriculums, except for one teacher.

Teachers' Awareness and Perceptions of the National Standards

This study investigated current levels of teachers' knowledge and perceptions of the standards. 26 teachers voluntarily participated in this study. Data were collected through field observations of 78 lessons taught by the teachers, 26 formal interviews with the teachers. All formal interviews were audiotaped and transcribed. The data were analyzed by using constant comparison technique. The trustworthiness was ensured through using different data sources and confirming and disconfirming findings by different researchers.

The findings indicated that the teachers' awareness of the standards varied along a wide range from no knowledge at all to an extensive knowledge of the standards. Of 26 teachers, eight had an extensive knowledge of the standards. This reflected that they were studying the standards carefully, seeing where the standards fit their curriculum goals, and integrating the standards with their curriculums and daily teaching practices based on their students' levels in psychomotor, cognitive, and affective aspects. Twelve teachers were aware of the standards. For example, they knew the standards or discussed the standards during in-service programs because their school districts or departments expected them to use the standards as a basis for designing their curriculums. Six teachers were totally unaware of the standards because they had never even heard of them. Even though others heard that the standards existed in our field, they never bothered to read and learned about them.

We also found that teachers had different opinions about the standards. The teachers who had favorable views of the standards believed that: (a) the standards provided targeted directions for what teachers should help students achieve in terms of three domains, (b) the standards are good guidelines for designing progressive and developmentally appropriate learning experiences, and (c) the standards gave our profession more accountability.

Some teachers commented that the standards were too general in nature. They articulated that the standards provided a starting point but did not actually give specific information about what types of learning experiences and what kinds of teaching strategies teachers ought to use help students reach certain benchmarks. These teachers were more concerned about how to put the standards into teaching practices. Other teachers stated that the standards were difficult for some students to achieve. They reflected that the "real" school and teaching situations they had to endure, such as students' skill levels, large class sizes, inadequate facilities and equipment, and limited teaching schedules, hindered them in helping students achieve desired learning outcomes.

Assessing Teacher Education Programs: Teaching for Meeting the National Standards

Purposes

The Achieving the NASPE Standards Inventory (ANSI) was developed and validated for the purpose of this study to investigate the extent to which preservice teachers' perceptions of reaching the NASPE beginning teacher standards in physical education teacher education programs.

Theoretical Perspectives

Prospective teachers will be the future agents of standard-based educational reform in the classroom of tomorrow. They will play a paramount role in holding K-12 students accountable for content standards and helping students achieve desired learning outcomes in psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domains. The successful implementation of the content standards rests directly with whether prospective teachers possessed a broad and depth knowledge base, a repertoire of teaching skills, and positive dispositions toward teaching and learning. The interlocked relationship between K-12 schooling and teacher education powerfully demands on preparing prospective teachers according to The National Standards for Beginning Physical Education Teachers (1995, 2003). The beginning teacher standards have served as a guide for preparation for quality prospective teachers. They provided a comprehensive and targeted framework for what beginning teachers should know and be able to do with what they know in the following 10 areas: (a) physical education content and discipline-related concepts as well as how to incorporate the concepts and principles to teach students contents in a developmentally appropriate way; (b) individuals' growth and development in relation to teaching and learning; (c) individuals' differences in skill levels, cognitive understandings, cultural backgrounds and how to meet students' diverse needs; (d) creating positive and productive learning environment to motivate students' active engagement in learning; (e) use of effective communication skills to enhance learning; (f) planning developmentally appropriate learning experiences and instructional strategies to facilitate students achieve specific objectives and general goals specified in a lesson and curriculum, respectively; (g) use of a variety of assessment techniques for improving students' movement performance, cognitive understanding, and social and personal behaviors; (h) use of self-reflection techniques to continually hone teaching skills; (i) applying current technology to teaching and learning processes; and (j) collaboration with colleagues, families, and community agencies to support students' learning. Each of the 10 standards was articulated within three interrelated parts: knowledge, performance, and dispositions. The beginning teacher standards were also in alignment with the NASPE physical education content standards. In order to teach to the content standards effectively, prospective teachers must be empowered with content knowledge, pedagogical skills, and professional dispositions. However, little is known about how well prospective teachers are prepared according to the standards. The pragmatic need to conduct this study is apparent.

Methods

Instrumentation. The NASPE beginning teacher standards (1995, 2003) provided a guide for developing items on The Achieving the NASPE Standards Inventory (ANSI). The theoretical construct of the items on the ANSI reflected the three essential interwoven parts: dispositions, knowledge, and performance (pedagogical knowledge and skills) underlying the 10 standards. The ANSI was designed as a self-assessment instrument for PETE preservice teachers to self-evaluate the extent to which they acquire professional dispositions, knowledge, and pedagogical skills related to the NASPE beginning teacher standards. In order to determine the reliability, validity, and feasibility of the ANSI, a pilot study was conducted with a sample pool of 108 subjects who did not participated in the main study using the first version of the 78-item ANSI. The resultant ANSI yielded three factors that supported the theoretical construct of the inventory. Further, redundant and vague items were deleted and then the remaining items were revised numerous times based on four pedagogical experts' judgment, suggestions, and critiques and the second edition of the NASPE standards (2003, draft). The final version of the ANSI consists of two parts: demographic information and 45 items rated on a five-point rating scale ranged from 5 (absolutely true) to 1 (Not true at all).

Data collection. 156 preservice teachers from nine physical education teacher education (PETE) programs in major universities located in north-eastern, south-eastern, mid-western, north-western, southern districts anonymously completed the inventory and returned them back to their teacher educators. The teacher educators mailed the completed inventories back to the investigator. The subjects were selected by using cluster random sampling methods (Hinkle, Wiersma, & Jurs, 1994) and on their voluntary basis.

Data analysis. The internal consistency reliability of the inventories was analyzed by using Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient and item-to-total correlation coefficient. The construct-related validity of the inventories was determined by a principal component analysis with varimax rotation. The differences on the total scale of the ANSI among nine groups were examined using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Group differences of the three sub-scale of the ANSI were analyzed using MANOVA, A follow-up ANOVA, and the post hoc Dunn (Bonferroni) multiple comparison statistical methods. Based on Burry-Stock's (1995) methods of percentage requirement, a quasi-distribution was used to quantify three levels of the preservice teachers' achievement of the standards, namely, acceptable level (85-99%), approaching acceptable level (70-84%), and unacceptable level (1-69%).

Results

Psychometric properties of the ANSI. The results of the reliability analysis indicated that the total scale of the ANSI had Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient value of 0.92, indicating a high degree of measurement reliability. In addition, the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient for the three sub-scales (factors) were 0.84 (factor 1), 0.89 (factor 2), and 0.90 (factor 3). All the item-to-total correlation coefficients ranged from 0.36 to 0.68, except for two items that were deleted from the ANSI because the item-to-total correlation coefficients were below 0.30. This also supported the high internal consistency of the inventory. A principal component analysis with a varimax rotation yielded three-factor solution based on the criteria of eigenvalues greater than one and inspection of scree plot. The three factors accounted for 42%, contributing to the construct-related validity. According to factor loadings and the meaning of the items, 10 items were loaded on Factor 1 which was labeled as Professional Dispositions; 16 items were clustered to Factor 2 which was named as Content Knowledge; and 17 items were grouped into Factor 3 which was labeled as Pedagogical Knowledge and Skills.

Group differences of achieving the standards in overall. A preservice teacher's total score on 43-items of the ANSI indicates his/her overall level in achieving the NASPE beginning teacher standards. The mean for the overall group is 183. Across all groups, Group nine had the highest mean of 189, while the mean of 179 in Group one and the mean of 164 in Group six were lower than the mean of 183 for overall Group. According to the percentage quantification of achievement levels, the preservice teachers in Group two, three, four, five, seven, eight and nine were categorized into acceptable level because these groups' percentage of the total scale was 85% or above, while Group one and six were classified into approaching acceptable level because the two groups' percentage of the total scale was 83% and 76%, respectively. ANOVA analysis revealed an over-all statistically significant difference on the mean scores of the total scale on the ANSI among nine groups (F8,147=2.9, p<.05). The results of a follow-up Bonferroni multiple comparison analysis indicated the preservice teachers in Group two, three, four, seven, and nine self-rated their acquisition of the NASPE standards significantly higher than the preservice teachers in Group six (p<.05).

Group differences of achieving the standards in three factors. MANOVA analysis produced an overall significant difference in the mean scores of the three factors on the ANSI among the nine groups: Wilk's l =0.739, F 8, 148=1.93, p<0.05. With regard to the first factor (professional dispositions), all groups were classified into acceptable level, except for Group six categorized into approaching acceptable level based on percentage requirement. ANOVA analysis produced a significant difference of the first factor on the ANSI among the nine groups (F8,147=2.1, p<.05). Subsequently, the results of Bonferroni multiple comparison revealed a significant difference of the mean scores only between Group nine and Group six (46.7 vs. 42, p<.05). With respect to the second factor (content knowledge), Group two, three, seven, eight, and nine were categorized into acceptable level, while Group one, four, five, and six were at approaching acceptable level according to percentage requirement. ANOVA analysis yielded a significant difference of the second factor on the ANSI among the nine groups (F8,147=2.6, p<.05). A significant difference of the mean score was found only for the comparison of Group three with Group six (69 vs. 59, p<.05) and Group nine with Group six (70 vs. 59, p<.05). Regarding the third factor (pedagogical knowledge and skills), only Group two, five, and nine were classified into acceptable level, while the preservice teachers in other groups were belong to approaching acceptable level. ANOVA analysis indicated that there was a significant difference of the third factor on the ANSI among the groups (F 8,147=2.7, p<.05). The comparisons of Group two with Group six (72 vs. 63, p<.05), Group five with Group six (73 vs. 63, p<0.05), and Group nine with Group six (73 vs. 63, p<.05) were statistically significant. The results established support for the reliability and validity of the ANSI that provided us with diagnostic information about achieving the NASPE standards.

Educational Importance

This study made the first attempt to examine the quality of teacher education programs in relation to empowering prospective teachers with pedagogical knowledge and skills for the need of making changes in teaching and learning. The findings provided us with a profile of whether teacher education programs meet the new challenge derived from standard-based movement across the nation. This study, in particular, was significant in three folds: First, this study provided insightful information about connections between current teacher education programs and the national standards. Second, this study presented diagnostic information about the teacher education programs' strength and weakness in relation to the standards in order to reach standard-based teacher education programs. Last, the study provided valid and reliable instrument used for the future study with even larger sample pool.

Assessing Preservice Teachers' Dispositions toward the NASPE Standards

This study aimed at examining the extent to which preservice teachers developed dispositions toward NASPE beginning teacher standards (1995, 2003). 12 preservice teachers (6 juniors and 6 student teachers) voluntarily participated in this study. Data were collected through one formal interview with participants, three written exams on teaching and learning, five lesson plans, one curriculum project, and one reflection paper. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and the multiple data sources were analyzed using constant comparison technique and triangulation. Six themes in relation to the NASPE standards were emerged including: (a) dispositions to content knowledge. All participants strongly believed that physical activities were vital in enhancing individuals' healthy life style. They expressed their willingness to seek continual professional development through attending conventions, reading articles, and using Internet. However, they did not mention their desires to incorporate inter-disciplines into their teaching; (b) dispositions toward growth and development. They recognized that developmental stages contributed to individuals' differences in psychomotor and cognitive domains instead of affective domain. They placed an emphasis on matching learning activities to students' skill levels and using appropriate teaching strategies to improve students' skills and knowledge instead of responsible social skills; (c) dispositions about diverse learners. Although both student teachers and juniors all stressed the importance of creating equal learning opportunities for all learners, only student teachers emphasized the importance of being sensitive to children's communities and cultural background in teaching; (d) dispositions toward management and motivation. They valued the importance of creating socially comfortable and personally enjoyable learning environment for students. They underscored that a teacher's role model such as enthusiasms and understanding students was critical to motivate students learning; (e) dispositions related to communication. They all emphasized that learning cues and demonstration were essential in enhancing students learning, only student teachers valued the powerful effectiveness of relating task presentation to students' life experiences and prior knowledge in fostering students' understanding; (f) dispositions of planning and instruction. They recognized that planning was the first step leading to a successful lesson and planning was very helpful for them to be on top of the class. They viewed effective instructions as teaching to students' levels yet challenging and involving all students in learning. They attributed their confidence about teaching to their progressive and various practicum experiences in different school settings prior to student teaching and some methods courses.

Assessment of Preservice Teachers' Knowledge of the NASPE Standards

This study investigated to what degree preservice teachers gained knowledge base of the NASPE beginning teacher standards (1995, 2003). The participants were 12 preservice teachers. Data sources included: (a) curriculum scope and sequence and course syllabi; (b) participants' five written exams on teaching and learning, five lesson plans, one curriculum project, and one reflection paper; and (c) one formal interview with each participant. The interviews were transcribed verbatim for analysis. The multiple data were analyzed using constant comparison technique. Findings included six themes related to six NASPE standards. First, content knowledge, the participants were knowledgeable of fundamental movements, movement concepts, adventure-typed cooperative activities, creative dance, and a few individual and team sports, although some expressed their needs to know more sports in depth. They had adequate knowledge of designing appropriate learning cues. However, they still lacked knowledge of integrating multiple disciplines with teaching physical education. Second, growth and development, they knew how to break down learning tasks into small steps to meet children's needs. They understood how to use task mediation to accommodate individuals' differences in skill levels. Third, management and motivation, they all gained a thorough understanding of establishing rules and routines that promote responsible personal and social behaviors, maximize students learning, and provide safe learning environment. Fourth, communication, although both student teachers and juniors grasped the effectiveness of communication skills such as presenting information precisely, using multiple ways of demonstration along with learning cues, and using age appropriate language, only student teachers described how to associate task presentation to students' familiar information. Fifth, planning and instruction, they demonstrated competency in designing instructional objectives based on content and age group. They all had adequate knowledge of writing a lesson plan consisting of objectives, learning cues, learning tasks, class organization, safety, and closure. They were familiar with a variety of teaching styles and instructional strategies. Last, assessment, the juniors seemed to have a better knowledge of designing rubrics, checklists, and rating scales for assessing students' psychomotor and affective learning than did student teachers because the juniors were currently taking the assessment and evaluation in physical education. The participants attributed their strengths and weaknesses based on the standards to the program structure and the way teacher educators taught content to them.

Effects of Teaching Actions on Students' Use of Critical Thinking Skills

This study aimed at investigating how the structure of tasks and instructional actions impact on students' use of critical thinking skills while learning creative dance. The participants in this study were an expert elementary physical education teacher and 162 students. 16 videotaped creative dance lessons taught by the expert teacher were evaluated using the Teaching to Promoting Critical Thinking Instruction (TPGTI) designed to assess students' demonstration of critical thinking in relation to a teacher's instructional actions. The TPGTI was developed through a review of literature, analysis of the written anecdotal descriptions of the teacher's teaching and the students' movement responses in the 16 taped lessons, and two field test in which the 16 taped lessons were assessed using the instrument to determine its content validity. The TPGTI consists of three major constructs of teaching actions (structure of task, task presentation, and feedback) and four major constructs of critical thinking (divergent/original movement responses, movement elaboration, refinement of dance quality and dance expression, and metacognition). The intra-observer agreement reached 80% and the inter-observer agreement was 81%. The data was analyzed by using descriptive statistics. The statistical analysis revealed that when the teacher presented task constraints accompanied with body illustration and imagery, the students were more likely to perform dance movement with a clear quality (83% of the time) while they were less likely to generate divergent/original movement responses (3% of the time). In contrast, when the teacher presented open-ended tasks along with demonstrating various movement solutions, providing verbal suggestions, asking questions, and emphasizing learning cues, the students generated divergent/original movement responses 83% of the time, creatively sued movement elements to elaborate on their responses 47% of the time, and also performed dance movement with a clear quality 91% of the time. Further, when being asked to design their own dance sequences reflecting dance variety and quality, the students created divergent/unique dance sequences 63% of the time, creatively used movement elements to elaborate on their sequences 100% of the time, performed the dance sequences with efficient use of effort 199% of the time and practiced the dance sequence without the teacher's monitoring 63% of the time. When repeating dance sequences, the students performed them to the music/rhythm precisely 75% of the time. The results of this study provided a picture of the link between instructional actions and the use of critical thinking skills.

Integration of Physical Education with Mathematical Concepts: Broaden Horizons and Deepen Understandings (Abstract of the research proposal)

Theoretical Perspectives

Learning theorists posit that learning occurs best when students make connections between previous knowledge and current learning and when students understand relationships among concepts (Dewey, 1938; Bruner, 1987; Piaget, 1970; Vygotsky, 1978). Brain researcher, Cromwell (1989) reports that the brain uses previous experiences to organize new information and searches for meaning from those experiences. The brain perceives and processes information in an interconnected and holistic manner. To foster students to gain an in-depth understanding of concepts, it is crucial for teachers to provide them with meaningful and integrated learning experiences. Interdisciplinary teaching is viewed as one of the effective approaches to meet this educational aim (Lancaster & Rikard, 2002; Lipson, Walencia, Wixson, & Peters, 1993). Interdisciplinary teaching integrates two to more subject areas into meaningful association to enhance and enrich students learning in each subject area (Cone, Werner, Cone, & Woods, 1998). Interdisciplinary teaching through physical education has received a great deal of attention by K-12 educators, as well as teacher preparation programs. Proponents view movement as an effective vehicle for providing integrative, concrete and authentic contexts to strengthen students' learning (Christie, 2000; Cone et al., 1998). They argue that through interdisciplinary teaching in physical education, the primary focus of learning movement concepts and skills would be extended and complemented. A supplementary focus of helping students make meaning of abstract concepts in another subject area also would be augmented and reinforced. However, how teachers apply interdisciplinary teaching practices to support this theoretical hypothesis still remains an untapped research area.

Research Purposes

The primary purpose of this study is to investigate how interdisciplinary teaching impacts students' learning of movement concepts and skills and students' conceptual understanding of math concepts. The secondary aim of this study is to investigate the strategies the teacher applies to facilitate the integrated learning experiences.

Research Methods

Participants and research setting. The second author, an accomplished elementary physical education teacher, and students from a second grade class will be selected as participants following receipt of parental permission. The teacher has taught elementary physical education for more than thirty years and has expertise in interdisciplinary teaching. She is the lead author for Interdisciplinary Teaching Through Physical Education (Cone, Werner, Cone, and Woods, 1998). She has published several articles on interdisciplinary teaching and made numerous presentations related to using the interdisciplinary teaching approach at national, regional and state conventions. The rational for choosing second grade children is: (a) these students primarily function in Piaget's concrete operational stage, (b) the primary focus of the physical education curriculum for second grade is fundamental movement and (c) second grade children are learning basic mathematical concepts and problems. This school was selected as the research setting because the student population represents a diversity of cultural, ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds.

Data sources. The data sources will consist of videotaping lessons, coding taped lessons, descriptive anecdotal records, interviews, and students' concept maps. First, the teacher will teach a five-lesson unit on fundamental movement while integrating math concepts learned in coordination with the second grade classroom teacher. All lessons will be videotaped. Second, a rubric for assessing children's movement responses (RACMR) will be developed and validated for this study prior to official data collection. The RACMR will be used to code the 5 taped lessons to obtain quantitative data in terms of children's movement variety and movement quality. Third, using protocols for descriptive anecdotal records, we will describe the children's movement responses to the teacher's teaching while watching each of the 5 taped lessons to obtain descriptive data. Fourth, the teacher and 10 randomly selected students will be formally interviewed at the beginning and at the conclusion of the unit. The interviews will focus on gathering qualitative data on the teaching strategies and her perspectives of students' movement content learning and conceptual understanding of math. In addition, the interviews will reveal students' perceptions of what they learned and understood in terms of movement content and mathematical concepts throughout the unit. Finally, students will also construct a concept map of movement concepts and math concepts at the beginning and again at the end of the unit. Concept maps are tools for organizing and representing knowledge (Trochim, 2000). So, we use concept maps to gather students' knowledge of movement and math concepts and understanding of relationships among them.

Data analysis. With regards to the quantitative data coded from the 5 taped lessons by using RACMR, descriptive statistics will be used to analyze students' demonstration of movement variety and quality in each of the 5 lessons because of small sample size (5 lessons). The qualitative data gathered from the descriptive anecdotal records and the transcribed interviews will be analyzed by using constant comparison technique (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). This includes reading and reading the descriptions and transcripts, identifying similar instances and labeling them with tentative assertions, grouping similar ideas into categories, and organizing categories into themes. To confirm the categories and themes emerged from data analysis, the qualitative data will be further analyzed using ATLAS qualitative data software. The concept maps constructed by students will be analyzed by using The Concept System software designed by Trochim (2000) to conduct the analysis including construction of the similarity matrix, multidimensional scaling, cluster analysis, and averaging of ratings. The mean scores of the links and the nodes on the concept maps will be analyzed by using dependent t test to examine a statistical difference between the pre- and post-test (at the beginning and the end of the unit).

Educational significance

The significance of this research project lies in (a) providing researchers with the validated instrument for assessing students' movement responses in authentic settings, (b) providing both researchers and practioners with descriptive information about how students apply mathematical concepts learned in classroom to enrich their movement content learning and how they make meanings of abstracted math concepts through engaging in concrete and applied movement experiences, (c) providing practioners with insightful information about students' views of the interdisciplinary learning experiences, and (d) providing both researchers and practioners with insights about how the teacher works with a classroom teacher to design sequential integrated learning tasks and uses appropriate teaching strategies to expand students learning movement content and to deepen students' understanding of math concepts.

Members

Faculty:
    Weiyun Chen, Ph.D. (chenwy@umich.edu), Director
Students:
    Laura Cottingham (lcotting@umich.edu)
Collaborators:
    Dr. Theresa Purcell Cone (tscone@comcast.net), Brunswick Acres Elementary School
    Dr. Stephen L. Cone, Professor (cone@rowan.edu), Rowan University

Links